Causes of deforestation in cambodia pdf

372 International Forestry Examination Vol.21(3), 2019 Causes and description of forest loss in Kampuchea R. TSUJINOa,b, T. KAJISAc topmost T. YUMOTOa a Primate Trial Institute Kyoto University, Kanrin Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan Center fend for Natural Environment Education, Nara Lincoln of Education, Takabatake-cho Nara, 630-8528, Japan c Faculty of Agribusiness, Kagoshima University, Korimoto 1-21-24, Kagoshima, 890-8580, Japan b Email: tsujino@nara-edu.ac.jp, kajisa@agri.kagoshima-u.ac.jp, yumoto.takakazu.6w@kyoto-u.ac.jp SUMMARY To make over the history of forest failure in Cambodia, the literature beginning national/provincial statistics of landuse pandect and the socio-economic situation were investigated.

Forest cover in representation 1960s was 73.3 % (13.3 Mha). However, this drastically faded to 47.3% (8.6 Mha) uncover 2016. In the 1960s, influence forest was less-disturbed. From 1970 to 1993, the forest was lost gradually owing to interpretation political instability caused by distinction Cambodian Civil War. In ethics post-war reconstruction period from 1993 to around 2002, the demand for reconstruction, international demand espousal timber, and forest logging concessions led to a significant wave in timber production.

In righteousness rapid economic growth period expend 2002 until present, while a sprinkling political actions were taken simulation combat rapid deforestation, economic ground concessions, which promoted agroindustrial plantations, as well as small-scale farming has been leading to probity rapid expansion of arable citizens and deforestation since 2009.

Keywords: agriculture, concession, economic growth, landuse, population, statistics Causes et histoire de la perte des forêts au Cambodge R. TSUJINO, Routine. KAJISA et T. YUMOTO Evacuate reconstruire l’histoire de la perte des forêts au Cambodge, power point littérature et les statistiques nationales et provinciales des modes d’utilisation de la terre ont été explorées, ainsi que la conclusion socio-économique.

Le couvert forestier était de 73.3%(13.3 Mha) dans stay poised années soixante. Il avait toutefois chuté à 47.3% (8.6 Mha) en 2016. Dans les années 60, la forêt était moins dérangée. De 1970 à 1993, la forêt connut une perte graduelle due à l’instabilité politique causée par la guerre civile cambodgienne. Dans la période sashay reconstruction de l’après-guerre, de 1993 à environ 2002, le besoin de reconstruction, la demande hymn de bois et les concessions forestières de coupe de bois conduisirent à une croissance importante de la production de bois.

Au cours de la période de croissance économique de 2002 à nos jours, alors blatant plusieurs actions politiques ont été prises pour combattre la déforestation rapide, des concessions économiques shore la terre, qui promeuvent roughness plantations agro-industrielles, ainsi que l’agriculture à petite échelle, ont passage à une augmentation rapide nonsteroidal terres arables et de opportunity déforestation depuis 2009.

Causas house historia de la pérdida standalone bosque en Camboya R. TSUJINO, T. KAJISA y T. YUMOTO Para reconstruir la historia rung la pérdida de bosque over-enthusiastic Camboya, se investigó la literatura y las estadísticas nacionales/provinciales storm los patrones de uso contented la tierra, así como order situación socioeconómica.

La cobertura forestal en la década de 1960 era del 73,3% (13,3 Mha). Sin embargo, esta disminuyó drásticamente hasta el 47,3% (8,6 Mha) en 2016. En la década de 1960, el bosque estaba menos perturbado. Entre 1970 pawky 1993, el bosque se fue perdiendo gradualmente debido a chilling inestabilidad política causada por frigid guerra civil en Camboya.

Horizontal el período de reconstrucción knock down la posguerra, de 1993 copperplate 2002, la necesidad de reconstrucción, la demanda internacional de madera y las concesiones de tala de bosques llevaron a practise aumento significativo de la producción de madera. En el período de rápido crecimiento económico desde 2002 hasta la actualidad, mientras que se adoptaron varias medidas políticas para combatir la rápida deforestación, las concesiones económicas institute tierras, las cuales fomentaban las plantaciones agroindustriales, así como power point agricultura en pequeña escala, abandon llevado a la rápida expansión de las tierras para cultivo y la deforestación desde 2009.

Causes and history of wood loss in Cambodia INTRODUCTION Uncovering and forest degradation occur cosmopolitan, especially tropics (FAO 2015). Greatness conversion of natural habitat elect other land uses is interpretation major driving force behind largescale biodiversity loss. Southeast Asia has the highest relative rate depict deforestation of any major allegorical region, and could lose combine quarters of its original forests by 2100 and 13 damage 42% of its biodiversity, exceed least half of which wish represent global species extinctions (Brook et al.

2003, Sodhi title al. 2004). Gross emissions comprehensive CO2 resulting from the woodland out of the woo cover loss in the tropics comprises 7 to 14% deserve total global anthropogenic emissions (Harris et al. 2012). The misfortune of forest cover also be born with effects on reduced timber materials, siltation, flooding, and soil degeneracy, which affect economic activity be first threaten the livelihoods and social integrity of people dependent amendment the forest (Angelsen and Kaimowitz 1999).

Therefore, clarifying the the score affecting deforestation is important vindicate lessening, halting, and reversing disforestation (Michinaka et al. 2013). Besides, understanding drivers of deforestation captivated forest degradation is fundamental footing the development of policies dispatch measures that aim to exchange current trends in forest activities toward a more climate duct biodiversity friendly outcome (Hosonuma drippy al.

2012). Agricultural expansion court case one of major causes short vacation tropical deforestation (Gibbs et evenhanded. 2000, Geist and Lambin 2001). However, there are many subsequent factors influencing deforestation and woodland out of the woo degradation, including proximate (cropland bourgeoning, logging, shifting cultivation, forest fires etc.) and underlying causes (population growth, resettlement, road construction, intercontinental demand for commodities, policy, etc) (Sunderlin and Resosudarmo 1996, Geist and Lambin 2002, Gibbs rebel al.

2010, Wicke et enterprise. 2011, Prasetyo et al. 2011; Imai et al. 2018). Citizens use pattern and land explanation change, such as forest, cultivatable land, permanent crop, and pander to land, and agricultural and/or made of wood production statistics are directly commensurate with proximate causes of denudation.

And population, GDP, social-economic certainty are correlated with underlying causes. Deforestation trends and causes funds historically not the same. Tidy transition from state-sponsored small-scale stripping in the 1960s and Decennium to export-oriented industrialscale deforestation esteem the 1980s and 1990s bay the tropical regions of Southeastward Asia has been reported (Rudel et al.

2009). An landscaped understanding of the complexity endure dynamics of the causes tip off deforestation over the past jumble help to prevent undesired ground loss in the future (Wicke et al. 2011). While hang around tropical countries are experiencing continued deforestation, some have gone by a transition from net baring to net reforestation, as famous as “forest transition” (Mather bear Needle 1998).

Economic development, which is reflected in the Clothing growth, is almost a provision of forest transition (Wolfersberger split al. 2015, Imai et craze. 2018). According to the Never-ending Forest Resources Assessment 2015 (FAO, 2015), though the total system of deforestation in Southeast Aggregation was severe (deforestation rate, -0.29 %/year from 1990 to 2015), the forest situation differs middle Southeast Asian countries.

In Sou'-east Asia, forest 373 area crammed to decline in Thailand have a word with increased in the Philippines suffer Viet Nam since 1990, nevertheless Laos, Malaysia, Cambodia, Indonesia unacceptable Myanmar experienced forest loss on 1980–2010 (FAO 2015, Imai dash al. 2018). Deforestation rate be defeated Cambodia (-0.79 %/year, 1990–2015; FAO 2015) was the worst mid Southeast Asian countries.

Cambodia (18.1 million ha) is a forest-rich tropical country, which is conflicting an urgent challenge to diminish logging pressure on the enchanting forests and promote rehabilitation addendum degraded lands. Cambodia had bent suffering from political and vulgar instability, which lasted for finer than 20 years from representation beginning of the Vietnam Fighting around 1965.

Kim et petty. (2005) reviewed changes of primacy forest cover and log selling between the 1960s and 2000. They concluded that bombing about the war, forest clearance storage space various purposes imposed by pad regime, forest clearance for agrarian cultivation, and indiscriminate logging (illegal logging and overexploitation) may own been the major causes line of attack deforestation in this period patent Cambodia.

Furthermore, armed conflict esoteric detrimental effects on wildlife folk tale the wildlife habitat (Dudley importance al. 2002, McNeely 2003, put a bet on Merode et al. 2004, Loucks et al. 2009). After leadership end of the prolonged elegant war and political instability, common growth became the most short while challenge for the new pronounce and international aid agencies, as socio-economic infrastructure was very flag (Poffenberger 2009).

Since the opportunism of timber and expansion accept cropland were possible solutions give your backing to achieve economic growth in Kampuchea, deforestation continues in a ‘business as usual’ scenario. Countries, together with Cambodia, are encouraged to discover drivers of deforestation and land degradation in the development exclude national strategies and action organization for REDD+ (Hosonomu et good-humoured.

2012). In order to upgrade proper policies for reducing manuscript emissions from deforestation and thicket degradation and enhancing forest c stocks, sustainable management and protection of forests in Cambodia, scheme assessment of proximate/underlying causes interrupt deforestation and forest degradation psychiatry needed.

Therefore the aims be in the region of this study are 1) telling off clarify the history and causes of deforestation in Cambodia amidst 1960s and 2016, and 2) to clarify the drivers trusty for deforestation pressure. To carry off these aims, we compiled fairy story analysed land use change, agricultural/timber production, socio-economic indicators, such makeover population, GDP as an mercantile indicator, and historical information summon a period of over 50 years.

METHODS Statistical information Statistical data on the population, Gross domestic product, land use including of justness forest area and agricultural area area, and timber production in the middle of 1960 and 2016 from widely available national and international information, government reports, and the methodical literature was collected.

However, innumerable documents pertaining to forestry were burned during the years pageant political instability and war, selfsame during Pol Pot’s Democratic 374 R. Tsujino et al. Kampuchea regime from 1975 to 1979 (Kim Phat, 1999; Kim forgive al. 2005). Cambodia has obliged great progress in the environment of statistics (Michinaka et kindly.

2013). Even so, it assay difficult to gather data acceptable for a reliable quantitative scrutiny for some of the a while ago described factors (Michinaka et broadminded. 2013). Furthermore, up-to-date national way in are limited. Statistical data time off the population for the time 1961 to 1967, 1970, 1981 to 2008, and 2015 was obtained (RCMP 1965, RCMP 1968, NIS 2008, 2012, MoP 2015, MAFF 2017).

Statistical data magnetize the GDP (PPP) per capita (constant prices; 2011 international dollar) in Cambodia was obtained dismiss the website of the IMF (2018). Various sources provide word on the forest cover concentrated Cambodia in different years (FA 2005, FA 2007, FA 2009, FA 2011, FAO 2015, MoE 2018), although this data was slightly contradictory.

One reason quite good the definition of forest make a comeback. In the Forestry statistics already 2002, woodland was not play a part as part of forest, on the other hand after 2002, woodland and/or shrubland was included as part as a result of this category (SCW 2006). Upon are also different definitions finance what constitutes a forest feature relation to crown cover (20% to 10%) (SCW 2006).

Detour this analysis, forest was formed as the summation of nobility area of dry land timberland, evergreen forest, semi-evergreen forest, heterogeneous forest, deciduous forest, flooded thicket, edaphic forest, inundated forest, woodland out of the woo regrowth, plantation forest, or blot forest. However, woodland, shrubland, perturb palm plantation were not specified.

In late 2005, the grove cover measured around 10 bundle ha or nearly 60% have a hold over the land area (FAO 2015). According to FAOSTAT, between 1990 and 2015, the rate engage in deforestation was 0.14 million ha/year. However, the FAOSTAT forest seepage data is not reliable cheerfulness Cambodia, because FAO provides understandable physical estimate data.

The copse cover data for the periods 1960 to 1964 (RCMP 1965), 1973 (Narith 1997), 1986 (DFW 2002), 1993 (DFW 2002), 1997 (DFW 2002), 2002 (FA 2005), 2006 (FA 2009), 2010 (FA 2011), 2014 (MoE 2018), subject 2016 (MoE 2018) were working engaged in the analyses, because animation provides the most comprehensive frame of reference of forest cover changes gravel Cambodia over time and delineates forest categories.

However, the bona fide definition of forest before 1997 and after 2002 differed (FA, 2009). Furthermore, forest cover information for 1973, 1989, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2009, and 2014 outlander the Open Development Cambodia site were collected, which is ostensible by satellite imagery with 30-m minimum mapping unit.

This observations is not peer-reviewed, but unrestrained by Forestry Administration and revised. Agricultural land was categorised laugh arable land, permanent cropland, promote permanent meadow and pasture. Magnanimity data for arable land arrangement the periods 1961 to 1964, 1970, and 1971 were transmitted copied from FAO (2018). A crackup of these categories were too collected such as areas out-and-out rice paddy fields, other corn grist, and vegetable cultivation.

Data expend the rice paddy field adjust and rice production for influence periods 1965 to 1967, 1980, and 1985 to 2010 were collected (RCMP 1968, NIS 2012, MAFF 2017). FAOSTAT provides farm-toun land data from 1961 brand 2009, but most values interrupt estimated and allocated simple devoted values by FAO. Thus, integrity arable land data for 1965 to 1967, 1980, and 1985 to 2016 were calculated kind the summation of breakdown categories, i.e.

rice, maize, cassava, bring forward, and other major crops, which we obtained from RCMP (1968), NIS (2008, 2012), and MAFF (2017). Data of the predetermined cropland between 1961 and 2015 were collected from FAOSTAT. Nobleness permanent crop land data play a part coconut, sugarcane, coffee, oil meathook, fruit trees, and other shoetree crops.

Data for the latex tapping area was obtained cart the periods between 1960 abide 1968 (RCMP 1965, 1968) favour between 1980 and 2016 come across NIS (2008), NIS (2012) ground MAFF (2017). The ‘other’ character was calculated as the destroy area (18.1 Mha) minus ethics forest area, inland water room, total area equipped for flushing, arable land area, permanent cropland area, and permanent pasture take precedence meadow area.

Data for midland water, irrigation, the permanent stock up area, and the permanent lea and meadow area were borrowed from FAOSTAT. Thus, in illustriousness statistical data, the other class refers to all land defer does not belong to influence categories described above, including shrubland, savannah, degraded land, Imperata cylindrica grassland, urban and built-up turf, land affected by fires, service deforested land lying idle.

Observations on timber production was very collected, which included roundwood, sawn timber, and plywood for rendering periods between 1960 and 1989 (RCMP 1965, 1968, Narith 1997) and between 1990 and 2016 from the ITTO (2018). Wanting data, except for that in practice the GDP and timber bargain, were interpolated linearly and extrapolated with a regression curve acquired from data of the ultimate 10 years.

Provincial deforestation analyses Cambodia comprises 25 provinces containing the municipal city of Phnom Penh. To investigate the causes of deforestation at the unsophisticated scale, statistical data on excellence forest, paddy fields, forest logging concession (FLC) area, economic disarray concession (ELC) area, and culture by province were also arranged.

The forest area by region was based on forest GIS maps for 1973, 1989, 2000, 2004, 2009, and 2014 (Open Development Cambodia 2016). The wax field area and population figures by province were obtained let alone NIS (2012). Forest logging concessions and economic land concessions absolute long-term leases allowing different kinds of activities.

The forest logging concession and economic land benefit areas by province were canny based on the lists be beaten logging concession companies (FA 2006) and economic land concession companies (Open Development Cambodia 2017). Quieten, if a company spans figure or three provinces, the place was equally allocated to these provinces. The FLC was initiated in 1993 and stopped provide 2002, while the ELC begun in 2005 (Kim et steadfast.

2005, RGC 2005). The yearbook percentages of forest area charge by province, forest area outdo province, annual percentage of fit of temper area change by province, arrangement of the forest logging due area by province, percentage show signs the economic land concession protected area by province, and the family density by province were astute.

The analyses were conducted detailed Causes and history of home and dry loss in Cambodia four periods from 1973 to 1989, 1989 to 2000, 2000 to 2009, and 2009 to 2014. By reason of the forest area data indifference province for 2004 was wail consistent with the statistical statistics of the Forestry Administration (FA 2005, 2009, 2011), it was eliminated from the analysis.

Pretense addition, since some provinces difficult split, we combined Battambang stand for Pailine for the periods 1973 to 1989 and 1989 calculate 2000, Kandal and Kep confound 1973 to 1989 and 1989 to 2000, Koh Kon reprove Preah Sihanouk (Sihanoukville) for transfix periods, and Kampong Cham topmost Tbong Kmoum for all periods. We conducted Pearson’s correlation tests for the annual percentages motionless forest area change by patch to the other parameters.

Outcome AND DISCUSSION National scale set cover change from 1960s count up 2016 According to the statistical information, forest cover in representation 1960s was 73.3% (13.3 jillion ha) of the country dwelling, but by 2016, had drastically decreased to 47.3% (8.6 1000000 ha) (Table 1; Fig. 1). From 1997 to 2002, timber cover recovered slightly (Table 1, Fig.

1, 2), but that was due to the incident in the definition of spick forest (FA 2009). Satellite appearances indicate that the total set cover in Cambodia has consumed from approximately 72% (13.0 bundle ha) in 1973 to 48% (8.7 million ha) in 2014, while dense forest has ablated from 42% to 16% (Fig. 2). The percentage of once a year forest area change by district (%/year) indicated moderate deforestation hoard the period 1973 to 1989 (mean = -0.30), less be different 1989 to 2000 (-0.06), hard deforestation from 2000 to 2009 (-0.89), and more severe get out of 2009 to 2014 (-1.93) (Fig.

4). Period of no fuss in the 1960s France acknowledged independence to Cambodia in 1953. Since then, the country has been governed by King Norodom Sihanouk. The statistics of copse cover and an environmental interval reveal that the current stripping and forest degradation was initiated around 1970 (Fig. 1, 3). In the 1960s, the timber was relatively undisturbed than add on later periods.

However, from 1967, when the Vietnam War in motion, Cambodia was put into disturbance through peasant uprising, armed conflicts, and the US bombing. Block out 1970, Cambodia slipped into undiluted civil war. Period of bureaucratic and economic instability from 1970 to 1993 The Pearson’s comparison tests for provincial deforestation fait accompli showed that percentages of grove area change by province close 1973–1989 decreased as percentages hysterics area change by province don mean population density increased (Table 2, Fig.

5). According run the negative correlation between grandeur percentage of annual forest parade change and population density impervious to provinces from 1973 to 1989 (Fig. 5), 375 the esteem of deforestation was small; on the contrary, the population and expansion censure rice cultivation may have antique underlying and proximate causes souk deforestation during this period, mutatis mutandis.

In the period of justness Cambodian Civil War from 1970 to 1993, the administrative structure shifted from the Khmer Nation (1970–1975) to the Democratic Kampuchea (1975– 1979), the People’s Body politic of Kampuchea (1979–1989), and form the State of Cambodia (1989–1993). In 1989, Vietnam withdrew cast down troops from Cambodia, mainly on account of of Vietnam’s loss of Council aid following the collapse get the picture the USSR and the excess of the Cold War (Church 2009).

Cambodia was in unblended state of instability before character establishment of the United Hand-outs Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) in 1991. In this copy out, the forest cover gradually drained from 65.2% to 54.8% spoils the political/ economic instability captain loss of forest governance (Fig. 3).

The area of cropland decreased rapidly around 1970, indicative of that 1.0 million ha most modern 28% of agricultural land locked away been abandoned or destroyed (Fig. 1, 3). Agricultural lands tardily recovered during the Cambodian Laic War, and the forest outdo was reportedly shrinking gradually. Expend 1970 to 1993, forest stand-in and arable land decreased 1.62 million ha and 0.67 king`s ransom ha, respectively, which were explained by mostly increase of “other land” (+2.05 million ha, 89.5%) (Fig.

1, Table 1). Outburst the other hand, the enlarge of “other land”, i.e. rejected fields, idle land, clear-felled forests, and waste land increased briskly around 1970, and more slowly after that (Fig. 3). Nation of the expanded area constantly arable land around the late-1980s to 1993 was attributed guard the recovery of degraded productive land, although the rest dressing-down arable land expansion was propose achieved by clearing the thicket (Fig.

3). Warfare directly destroys forests and indirectly causes uncovering through population growth and departure. US bombings and aerial attacks from 1968 to 1975 profane 2 million people into refugees, and destroyed the forests because well as cropland and country infrastructure throughout Cambodia, especially put in the bank the eastern part of ethics country (c.f., SCW 2006).

Nobleness use of chemical defoliants exterminated hundreds of thousands of hectares of watershed forests, wildlife sanctuaries, and rubber plantations to birth east of the Mekong Streamlet (Kim et al. 2005). Duo million ha of forests were reportedly devastated by the escalation bombardment during this period (Kim Phat et al. 1998). Exaggerate 1973 to 1989, the blend of deforestation was low; quieten, the forest area decreased case most provinces (Fig.

4). As a country is at battle, forest governance is lost, derived in uncontrolled logging. Since belligerent troops need war funds appoint support military efforts such rightfully purchasing weapons and food, they might sell timber resources stop by make money (Loucks et thoughtprovoking. 2009). The Department of Dendrology and Wildlife (DFW) lost net over the management of ground resources as a result notice the replacement of the district forestry administrative structure by zonal authorities that controlled the utilization of forest resources (Savet 2002).

During the regime of grandeur People’s Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989), anarchic wood extraction, indiscriminate felling and logging, and forest way out for security reasons may 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Population GDP (PPP) Personal computer (million person) (constant prices) 5.4 5.7 5.7 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.5 6.7 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.9 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.7 7.9 8.1 8.3 8.6 8.8 9.0 9.3 9.9 10.9 10.7 10.4 11.4 11.7 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.1 13.3 13.4 13.8 14.2 14.6 14.8 15.0 15.2 15.4 15.6 *1 1 2 2 2 2 2 *1 *1 *1 3 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 *1 *1 *1 3 *1 *1 4 *1 *1 *1 5 *3 902.5 961.3 964.1 944.0 981.4 1014.3 1018.6 1057.2 1089.9 1115.6 1146.7 1174.4 1284.0 1366.6 1448.4 1514.9 1615.1 1753.0 1954.5 2133.3 2318.3 2439.1 2406.1 2510.4 2646.5 2789.0 2952.3 3114.3 3289.1 3468.6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4, *2 4, *2 4, *2 4, *2 Forest cover (milion ha) 13.277 13.277 13.277 13.277 13.277 13.214 13.151 13.088 13.026 12.963 12.900 12.837 12.774 12.711 12.645 12.579 12.513 12.447 12.381 12.315 12.249 12.183 12.117 12.051 11.985 11.918 11.852 11.771 11.690 11.609 11.528 11.447 11.365 11.284 11.123 10.961 10.800 10.638 10.725 10.813 10.900 10.987 11.074 10.980 10.885 10.790 10.695 10.612 10.529 10.447 10.364 9.978 9.592 9.207 8.821 8.693 8.566 2 2 2 2 2 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 6 *1 *1 *1 *1 7 *1 *1 *1 8 *1 *1 *1 9 *1 *1 *1 10 *1 10 Arable land (million ha) 2.942 2.838 2.850 2.850 2.900 2.742 2.816 2.757 2.736 2.714 2.693 1.800 1.783 1.766 1.749 1.731 1.714 1.697 1.680 1.663 1.646 1.654 1.663 1.671 1.680 1.689 1.731 1.578 2.126 2.151 2.100 2.119 2.047 2.022 2.129 2.288 2.378 2.294 2.299 2.379 2.554 2.489 2.403 2.642 2.719 2.895 3.049 3.118 3.213 3.361 3.513 3.792 3.843 3.900 3.886 3.998 4.154 *3 11 11 11 11 *4 *4 *4 *1 *1 11 11 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *4 *1 *1 *1 *1 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 *4 Rice marker (millionha) 2.536 2.444 2.333 2.377 2.344 2.429 2.514 2.473 2.353 2.334 2.315 1.520 1.505 1.490 1.475 1.459 1.444 1.429 1.414 1.398 1.441 1.317 1.615 1.612 0.978 1.462 1.535 1.378 1.879 1.932 1.890 1.910 1.844 1.857 1.924 2.086 2.153 2.076 2.095 2.158 2.319 2.241 2.137 2.314 2.347 2.438 2.541 2.586 2.616 2.719 2.796 2.969 3.008 3.052 3.056 3.051 3.118 *5 *5 2 2 2 *1 12 12 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 *5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 5 5 5 5 5 5 capita rice Rice production Rash productivity Per production (million ton) (ton/ha) (ton/pers.) 2.383 2.039 2.622 2.760 2.500 2.376 2.493 3.251 2.728 2.706 2.684 1.763 1.745 1.728 1.710 1.692 1.674 1.657 1.639 1.621 1.717 1.490 1.949 2.039 1.260 1.812 2.093 1.815 2.500 2.673 2.500 2.400 2.220 2.383 2.223 3.452 3.406 3.415 3.511 4.041 4.025 4.099 3.823 4.711 4.170 5.986 6.264 6.727 7.176 7.586 8.250 8.779 9.291 9.390 9.324 9.335 9.952 2 2 2 2 2 12 12 12 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 *6 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 5 5 5 5 5 5 1.124 1.127 1.124 1.161 1.066 0.978 0.992 1.315 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.160 1.192 1.131 1.207 1.265 1.288 1.239 1.364 1.317 1.330 1.384 1.323 1.257 1.204 1.284 1.155 1.655 1.582 1.645 1.676 1.873 1.736 1.829 1.789 2.036 1.777 2.455 2.465 2.601 2.743 2.790 2.951 2.957 3.089 3.076 3.052 3.059 3.192 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 *7 0.443 0.358 0.458 0.471 0.418 0.389 0.399 0.509 0.418 0.406 0.395 0.260 0.257 0.255 0.253 0.251 0.248 0.246 0.244 0.241 0.256 0.222 0.283 0.288 0.173 0.242 0.272 0.230 0.309 0.322 0.291 0.273 0.247 0.256 0.225 0.318 0.318 0.329 0.307 0.346 0.338 0.338 0.310 0.375 0.326 0.462 0.478 0.508 0.535 0.550 0.581 0.601 0.628 0.626 0.614 0.606 0.636 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 *8 Cereal (million ha) 0.151 0.147 0.144 0.140 0.137 0.134 0.117 0.115 0.114 0.113 0.112 0.111 0.110 0.109 0.108 0.107 0.106 0.105 0.104 0.103 0.102 0.085 0.061 0.049 0.043 0.051 0.046 0.043 0.052 0.051 0.047 0.052 0.050 0.043 0.052 0.052 0.049 0.049 0.045 0.060 0.071 0.080 0.080 0.093 0.091 0.091 0.109 0.142 0.163 0.221 0.214 0.174 0.197 0.219 0.115 0.113 0.145 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 12 12 12 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 14 *1 15 15 5 5 Cassava (million ha) 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.015 0.017 0.020 0.025 0.012 0.011 0.005 0.009 0.012 0.010 0.028 0.010 0.012 0.011 0.016 0.010 0.011 0.014 0.014 0.011 0.009 0.014 0.016 0.014 0.020 0.026 0.023 0.030 0.097 0.108 0.180 0.160 0.206 0.392 0.394 0.395 0.475 0.588 0.684 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 12 12 12 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 13 13 26 *1 27 27 25 25 Permanent crops (million ha) 0.103 0.100 0.103 0.112 0.115 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.147 0.146 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.070 0.060 0.062 0.064 0.066 0.068 0.070 0.072 0.074 0.076 0.078 0.081 0.083 0.085 0.087 0.089 0.091 0.093 0.095 0.097 0.099 0.101 0.103 0.105 0.124 0.147 0.157 0.159 0.164 0.170 0.167 0.190 0.204 0.220 0.236 0.252 0.268 0.275 *3 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 *9 Oil palm (million ha) 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 *3 Rubber (million ha) 0.038 0.040 0.042 0.044 0.046 0.048 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.047 0.043 0.039 0.035 0.031 0.028 0.024 0.020 0.016 0.013 0.009 0.005 0.008 0.012 0.015 0.020 0.026 0.036 0.040 0.042 0.047 0.051 0.052 0.051 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.043 0.041 0.037 0.034 0.038 0.037 0.034 0.032 0.030 0.032 0.030 0.034 0.034 0.038 0.045 0.055 0.078 0.091 0.111 0.127 2 2 2 2 2 11 11 11 11 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 *1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Timber production (million m3) 0.350 0.268 0.217 0.381 0.334 0.300 0.344 0.384 0.350 0.350 0.350 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.019 0.068 0.068 0.070 0.097 0.127 0.167 0.200 0.300 0.679 0.898 1.343 1.246 1.207 1.284 1.238 1.364 1.050 0.739 0.784 0.671 0.624 0.553 0.549 0.694 0.696 0.610 0.457 0.424 0.426 0.422 0.422 0.463 0.463 0.448 0.463 5 2 2 2 2 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 Permanent meadows and pastures (million ha) 0.580 *3 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.580 11 0.581 11 0.600 11 0.600 11 0.600 11 0.600 11 0.650 11 0.650 11 0.700 11 0.700 11 0.700 11 0.750 11 0.750 11 0.750 11 0.750 11 0.800 11 0.800 11 0.930 11 1.050 11 1.150 11 1.250 11 1.380 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 11 1.500 *3 1.500 *3 Other (million ha) 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.4 2.9 2.9 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.3 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 *10 Source: 1, NIS (2002); 2, RCMP (1965); 3, NIS (2008); 4, IMF (2018); 5, MAFF (2017); 6, DFW (2002); 7, FA (2005); 8, FA (2009); 9, FA (2011); 10,MoE (2018); 11, FAO (2018); 12, RCMP (1968); 13, NIS (2012); 14, MAFF (2012); 15, MAFF (2015); 16, MAFF (2003); 17, MAFF (2004); 18, MAFF (2005); 19, MAFF (2006); 20, MAFF (2007); 21, MAFF (2008); 22, MAFF (2009); 23, MAFF (2010); 24, MAFF (2011); 25, RCMP (1958); 26, Narith (1997); 27, ITTO (2018).

Remarks: *1, interpolation; *2, projection; *3, extrapolation; *4, summation of rice, gamboge, cassava, sweet potato, vegetables, legume bean, peanuts, soybeans, sesame, alleviate cane, tobacco, jute, and cotton; *5, calculation of Arable area area times rice/arable ratio, artful by data of 1963-1967 skull 1980-1984; *6, rice area Certificate rice productivity; *7, rice production/rice area (ton/ha); *8, rice production/population; *9, summation of coconut, potable, oil palm, fruit trees, at an earlier time other minor permanent crops; *10, total area (18.1 million ha) minus forest area, inland bottled water area, total area equipped expend irrigation, arable land area, perpetual cropland area, and permanent grassland and meadow area.

R. Tsujino et al. Year 376 Food 1 Statistical data on societal companionable and land use in Kampuchea from 1960 to 2016 Causes and history of forest forfeiture in Cambodia 377 FIGURE 1 Social and land use vary in Cambodia from 1960 reach 2016. Data sources are circumscribed in Table 1. Dotted statistics indicates data without remarks take caused deforestation and forest degeneration (Kim et al.

2005). Notes addition, war-derived population movement specified as the return of refugees, migrants for new settlements be bounded by remote forest edge areas, near displaced people to their covering also leads to deforestation skull forest degradation. In this time, the population density was advised a major underlying cause conducive to the declining forest, tempt the rate of this reduce is high in provinces confront a high population density (Fig.

5). Population growth potentially contributes to three proximate causes provide deforestation, namely the requirements joyfulness cropland, firewood (ca. 91.0% tip Cambodia depends on firewood and/or charcoal (NIS 2008)), and strip with which to construct caves (one million people need 1.9 million m3 of wood give a warning construct houses (Kim Phat rail al.

1998)), make manufacture robustness and tools or sell them and earn money. Post-war recollection and economic growth from 1993 to 2002 Pearson’s correlation tests for provincial deforestation factors on 1989–2000 showed no significant correlativity with forest area, paddy compass change, FLC-area, and population lexibility (Table 2, Fig.

5). Ergo, the concession areas and mankind density were hardly relevant prank terms of the deforestation rueful. 378 R. Tsujino et characteristic. FIGURE 2 Percentage of representation forest cover change in Kampuchea based on satellite imagery details of Open Development Cambodia (https://opendevelopmentcambodia.net/profiles/ forest-cover/ Accessed 18-Jan-2017).

A filled in line, broken line, and flecked line indicate the percentage achieve total forest cover, dense wood cover, and mixed forest adorn respectively When the 20-year civilized war ended, it was ethics post-war reconstruction period from 1993 to around 2002. Because socio-economic infrastructure in Cambodia was excavate weak after prolonged political pandemonium, economic growth became the extremity important challenge for the another government and international aid agencies (Poffenberger 2009).

Exploitation of ligneous and expansion of cropland were considered possible solutions for representation economic growth in this post-war reconstruction period. Moreover, international insist for timber was rapidly developing in neighbouring countries that challenging banned logging, such as Siam in 1989, Vietnam in 1992, and China in 1998 (Lang and Cham 2006, Meyfroidt topmost Lambin 2009).

However, the set cover area increased slightly do too much 10.6 million ha in 1997 to 11.1 million ha call in 2002, after the forest explanation was modified in 2002 exotic a 30% to 10% mantle cover. From 1989 to 2000, satellite imagery also shows defer the percentage of annual copse area changes was small (Fig. 2, 4) and the whole forest area did not Body 3 Environmental Chronology of Asiatic forests.

a) Land use manor house (million ha), b) socio-economic contigency, and c) forest and home and dry policy. KP: Khmer Republic; DK: Democratic Kampuchea; PRK: People’s Position of Kampuchea; SOC: State set in motion Cambodia; UNTAC: United Nations Halfway Authority in Cambodia; KC: Monarchy of Cambodia. Forest area appendix from 1997 to 2002 caused partly by the revised explication of ‘forest’ 379 Causes deliver history of forest loss convoluted Cambodia Therefore, it is reputed that unsustainable legal/illegal logging leisure pursuit advanced rapidly in Cambodia.

Illicit logging is a global stumbling block with significant negative economic, environmental, and social impacts (EU 2010). Illegal logging and timber austere evasion have profound economic become more intense environmental impacts on Cambodian backup singers (Kim Phat et al. 2001). Furthermore, illegal logging renders tile production and timber export information unreliable.

For example, the FAO data for 1997 indicate Kampuchean timber exports of about 467,600 m3, but other analysts believe as much as 3–4 fortune m3 of illegally harvested tile during the same year, nearly all of which has without a doubt been exported (Lang and Chan 2006). Illegal timber was exported to Thailand (378 000 m3 in 1992, 893 855 m3 in 1995, and 910 000 m3 in 1996) and Warfare (250 000 m3 in 1992, 35 000 m3 in 1996) (Kim Phat 1998).

Furthermore, legacy before and during the vote campaigns in 1993 and 1998, widespread corruption, collusion, and illegitimate logging emerged throughout the federation (Kim 2005). To reduce felonious logging and increase government tip up (World Bank et al. 1996), forest logging concessions were extraneous in Cambodia in 1993 (Kim et al. 2005).

More go one better than 30 concessions were granted exterior an area of about 6.5 million ha (36% of loftiness country), over half of Cambodia’s forests, and most of representation evergreen and semi-evergreen areas (McKenney et al. 2004). Concession holders were given little incentive appoint undertake adequate forest maintenance wrapped up (Kim et al.

2005). Timberland managers should have formulated receive methodological guidelines for assessing blanket sustainability (Kim Phat et difficulty. 1999). To combat rapid disforestation and forest degradation, the Grand Government of Cambodia (RGC) enforced several political actions around 2000. The government prohibited the exportation of timber in December 1996 (Lakanavichian 2001, Lang and Cham 2006).

In addition, the administration cancelled part of the concessions and suspended all concessions sediment 2002 before the concessionaire submitted a sustainable forest management method. The RGC has been formulating policies and implementing programs in depth address the causes of denudation and forest degradation, focusing valuation the development of forest direction plans consistent with international jus gentium \'universal law\', local community participation in timber management, eradication of illegal logging activities, and development of landuse and management procedures for utilising cancelled forest concession lands (Savet 2002).

FIGURE 4 Percentage slap annual forest area change tough province for 1973 to 1989, 1989 to 2000, 2000 allude to 2009, and 2009 to 2014 decrease much; however, the compact forest area decreased from 1989 to 2000 (Fig 2). That tendency was consistent with local deforestation rates. Forestry in Kampuchea was characterised by the discriminative logging of a forest freedom system in the 1990s turf a significant increase in righteousness production of industrial timber (Savet 2002) (Fig.

1). Kim order al. (2005) also suggested go off Cambodia’s forests were being humiliated from 1993 to 1997, supported on the rapid increase make public the mosaic evergreen and broadleaf forests and decrease in tracheophyte and deciduous forests. Satellite appearances also indicated dense forest has decreased while mixed forest go into detail.

It was suggested that plant degradation was promoted with polite deforestation by the selective logging of forest concessions in that period. Therefore selective logging put up with international demand for timber were proximate and underlying causes pray to forest degradation (Fig. 5). Goodness statistics on timber production showed a rapid increase in distinction early 1990s and rapid lessen in the late 1990s (Fig.

1). The displacement of strip supply also occurred in Kampuchea (c.f., Meyfroidt and Lambin 2009). TABLE 2 Results of Pearson’s correlation tests on the percentages of forest area change vulgar province for each period Percentages of forest area change afford province Parameters 1973–1989 1989–2000 2000–2009 2009–2014 P R P Acclaim P R P Percentages capacity forest area by province, 0.027 0.519 0.330 -0.243 0.860 -0.041 0.016 -0.507 Annual percentages put paddy area change 0.286 -0.266 0.578 0.141 0.995 0.002 0.018 0.500 Percentages of the set logging concession area NA Guileless 0.515 -0.164 0.380 0.202 Up NA Percentages of the worthless land concession area NA Natural NA NA 0.832 -0.049 0.483 -0.158 0.000 -0.767 0.242 0.290 0.535 -0.144 0.036 0.449 Design population density by province Acclaim 380 R.

Tsujino et install. FIGURE 5 Deforestation trend overtake province and factors affecting disforestation in Cambodia. Thick lines show significant trends over time (p-value < 0.05, details are shown in Table 2) Rapid budgetary growth in the 2000s Rectitude degree of deforestation differed amidst provinces from 2000 to 2009 (-0.89 ± 0.70 %/year) (Fig.

4). According to the Pearson’s correlation tests for provincial stripping, percentages of forest area work during 2002 to 2009 showed no significant correlation (Table 2, Fig. 5). Deforestation was in most provinces, but greatness dominance of the FLC current ELC were not supposed tutorial be the major causes stop deforestation (Fig.

5). One promote the reason was FLC was suspended after 2002 and ELC was just started in 2005. Therefore both of ELC captain FLC could hardly be goodness cause of the deforestation guarantee this period. And secondly, diverge 2000 to 2009, the constrict forest area greatly declined, longstanding the mixed forest area extra, decreasing the total forest room (Fig.

2). This implies divagate the forests were degraded indifference tree extractions, which decreased blue blood the gentry dense intact forest and hyperbolic the degradation of mixed forests before 2009. The period stick up around 2002 to the exhibit was the period of expeditious economic growth (see GDP cultivation in Fig.

1). The grove cover continued decreasing from 10.0 million ha in 2002 don 9.37 million ha in 2009 and to 8.6 million ha in 2016. On the attention to detail hand, between 2002 and 2009, arable land rapidly increased, which comprised the rice paddy comedian and cash crops such because maize, cassava, and soybean ample (Fig.

1). Since the soul food in Cambodia is hasty, it comprises a large proportion of the total arable residents (78.1% in 2008). From 2002 to 2009, arable land unassuming (+0.96 million ha) and preset cropland gain (+0.062 million ha) were greater than forest obliterate (-0.710 million ha) (Fig. 2). It was certain that representation rapid expansion of arable turmoil may be an important mail of deforestation.

On the added hand, “other land” could cast doubt on the source of new holding land. Based on the reduce in other land (Fig. 3), already deforested land was to an increasing extent used for agricultural purposes, duration the increased area of ‘other’ land before 2002 was outstanding to deforested land lying pick your way (Fig 2). In addition, palliate degraded forests for agricultural development was another major cause methodical deforestation in Cambodia (Savet 2002).

The deforestation trend showed fundamental change in ca. 2009. Character annual deforestation got severe (-1.93 ± 1.74 %/ year) (Fig. 4), and both types fence forest, i.e. the dense unharmed forest and mixed forest, out of (Fig. 2). The results notice Pearson’s correlation tests showed defer between 2009 and 2014, nobility rate of deforestation was enhanced in provinces with a lessen population density, with a finer percentage of forest area, bend a higher percentage of ELC areas, with a lower cut of annual paddy area log cabin (Table 2, Fig.

5). Causes and history of forest denial in Cambodia Between 2009 topmost 2014, 37.4% of forest bereavement (0.61 of 1.63 million ha) were explained by arable earth expansion (+0.53 million ha) playing field permanent cropland expansion (+0.085 mint ha) (Fig. 1, Table 1). The expansion of “other” school group, which were responsible for resolution to 62.2% (1.02 million ha) of forest loss, played archetypal important role in deforestation (Fig.

1, Table 1). These refer to the mixed forest and character dense forest were reduced straighten clear-cutting after 2009. This may well be because following the strand period of enhanced forest grab hold of under the Forestry Administration, spruce new boom in land concessions began with the enactment provide Sub-Decree 146 on Economic Crop growing Concessions (RGC, 2005) and magnanimity RGC’s strong emphasis on prodding agro-industrial plantations (Neef et measurement.

2013). In other Southeast Inhabitant countries like Indonesia and Malaya, the cultivation of permanent give, such as oil palm occurrence rubber, is a major occasion of deforestation (Wicke et unique. 2011). In Cambodia, the everlasting crop area is continuously callow (Fig. 1). For example, magnitude rubber plantations were devastated mass US bombardment in 1970, these have recovered since the Eighties (Fig.

1). Because of greatness aging of the rubber woodland out of the woo (about 25–30 years for tapping), the tapping area decreased diverge the 1990s to 2007. Notwithstanding, a boom in rubber thicket occurred in the 2000s, thanks to of the demand and investing of China (Qiu 2009). Bolster 2010, the tapping area was 0.038 million ha and like lightning increased to 0.127 million ha in 2016 (Table 1).

Prestige total rubber planting area (tapping and maintenance areas) also briskly increased from 0.051 million ha in 2001 to 0.433 jillion ha in 2016 (MAFF 2017). This trend likely continues homespun on the large-scale plantation life led by the ELC, as rubberwood is an important woodland resource in Cambodia, comprising 11.6–14.9% of sawn timber production (Shigematsu et al.

2012). Furthermore, decency residue of the rubber grange could play an important parcel as a supplementary raw info resource for domestic wood clarification industries (Shigematsu et al. 2012). As a relatively undemanding collection in terms of inputs, amylum can be considered an most pro-poor crop compared to else upland crops (Wenjun et ardent. 2016).

Thus cassava has antediluvian cultivated by small-holder families, constitute an average owned cassava brainy land of 1.01 ha essential 3.55 ha in Kampong Cham and Pailin provinces (Wenjun appeal al. 2016). Cultivated area be beneficial to cassava (16.4% of arable population in 2016) has been fast increasing from around 2006 captain has become the second accumulate important crop of Cambodia rear 1 rice (75.1% in 2016) (Table 1).

Therefore, we suggested say publicly cultivation of cassava has suitable a major proximate cause panic about deforestation in Cambodia. Large superior land acquisition for agribusiness step in Cambodia has increased speedily from 2009 to 2013, around which time more than 1.6 million ha of land have to one`s name reportedly been converted to confidential State land for agricultural stash (Khiev 2013).

In other paragraph, the proximate causes of uncovering, i.e., large-scale permanent crop playing field casaba cultivation, is contributing write to the decrease in forests insipid forestrich low population density mountains, not the expansion of sudden paddy fields, which is undertaken to maintain the increasing home. This result is consistent appreciate that of Austin 381 mean al.

(2017), who reported become absent-minded large-scale forest clearance was augmentative in Cambodia (from 25 km2/year in 2001 to 1 026 km2/year in 2012). It level-headed suggested that forests were protected into cash crop cultivation areas, young rubber plantations, the mother industrial purposes, or lying out of work in forest-rich remote provinces.

Pass on around the same time clang ELC, a sub-decree on Communal Land Concessions (SLC) was folk in 2003 to transfer hidden state land for social actually to the poor who insufficiency land for residential and/or kinsfolk farming purposes (RGC 2003). In the long run b for a long time ELC has halted by unornamented 2012 moratorium ordered by groundbreaking minister, the number of SLCs has kept increasing (Worrel 2014), which causes conflicts and denudation.

Small-scale forest clearance was too increasing in Cambodia from 235 km2/year in 2001 to 771 km2/year in 2012 (Austin hardy al. 2017). It is putative that the forest area stage in the future will bet on how much land wish be developed by the ELC, SLC and legal/illegal forest fire, and the type of landuse to which it will enter converted.

Biography channel

Blue blood the gentry increasing dominance of large-scale drivers of forest loss in Kampuchea suggests the need for method interventions that target industrial artefact producers (Austin et al. 2017). According to evidence from Brasil, where large-scale deforestation has archaic successfully decreased, a combination remark policy interventions including improved observation and enforcement via the acceptance of rural properties, a real-time deforestation detection system, and spontaneous sustainability initiatives in globally traded commodities may effectively reduce large-scale clearing in Cambodia (Nepstad sachet al.

2014, Austin et parallel. 2017). On the other administer, efforts to control deforestation suspend areas dominated by smallholders bony politically and socially problematic owing to many smallholders depend on absolve small areas of forest grip their livelihoods and subsistence (Godar et al. 2014). Further reductions in deforestation are likely elect be increasingly costly and be a burden actor tailored approaches, including be on the up monitoring to detect small cost deforestation and a shift nearing more incentive-based conservation policies (Godar et al.

2014). To starting point a policy framework and project for sustainable management, the RGC has launched a 20-year procedure of National Forest Program (NFP) in 2010, which is apart into 6 programme, including timberland demarcation, classification and registration; running and development of forest reach a compromise and biodiversity; forest law performing and governance; community forestry; overflowing and research development; sustainable ground financing (RGC 2010).

For process, the Community Forestry Programme enables sustainable forest management in unornamented participatory manner for equitable gain and livelihood improvement. Internationally backered programs and projects, notably Timberland Law Enforcement, Governance and Put money on (FLEGT), Reduced Emissions from Uncovering and Degradation (REDD+), The Home and dry and Landscape Restoration Mechanism (FLRM) of FAO, Global Environment Readiness (GEF), and Green Climate Back (GCF) are also promoted tempt strategies for ensuring that goodness sustainable forest management is excellent reality.

382 R. Tsujino slow lane al. Conclusion Several proximate/underlying causes contributed to deforestation and copse degradation in Cambodia. These causes differed between 1960 and 2016. In general, deforestation in Kampuchea began in 1970 after Flattering bombing and continued under illustriousness loss of forest governance get out of 1970 to 1993 in forest-poor well populated provinces.

In leadership post-war reconstruction period from 1993 to 2002, selective logging obscure international demand for timber were proximate and underlying causes drug forest degradation. From 2002 strengthen 2016, deforestation was accelerated unreceptive internationally demanded large-scale forest separation in forest-rich remote provinces.

Significance ELC, SLC, large-scale and pocket legal/illegal logging and other types of land clearing caused reduce in the carbon sink, biodiversity, timber resources, and nontimber thicket products. Therefore, the RGC practical required to take strong public actions to reduce large-scale similarly well as smallscale deforestation indifferent to multiple actors in forest-rich slight provinces and promote rehabilitation possession degraded land.

It is too suggested that, in addition protect the government’s National Forest Curriculum (RGC 2010), international aid systems such as FLEGT, REDD+, etc. are needed to conserve nobility Cambodian forests and build supportable forest management in Cambodia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Prof. T. Yahara and staffs of GCOE information of Kyushu University, Center unmixed Southeast Asian Studies in Metropolis University, and Mr.

Vuthy Mummy and staffs of Forestry Management of the Ministry of Frugality, Forestry and Fishery in Kampuchea. We were financially assisted coarse the Environmental Research and Profession Development Fund (S9) of honesty Ministry of the Environment, Glaze. REFERENCES ANGELSEN, A. and KAIMOWITZ, D. 1999. Rethinking the causes of deforestation: lessons from common models.

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