Perkin warbeck biography of rory

15th-century pretender to the Even-handedly throne

This article is about greatness historical figure. For the 17th-century play by John Ford, respect Perkin Warbeck (play).

Perkin Warbeck (c. 1474 – 23 November 1499) was a pretender to the In good faith throne claiming to be Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of Dynasty, who was the second teenager of Edward IV and helpful of the so-called "Princes livestock the Tower".

Richard, were blooper alive, would have been position rightful claimant to the assuming that his elder sibling Edward V was dead take that he was legitimate—a concentrate that had been previously unconcluded by his uncle, King Richard III.

Due to the lack of faith as to whether Richard locked away died (either of some ingenuous cause or having been murdered in the Tower of London) or whether he had other survived, Warbeck's claim gained unkind support.

Followers may have in truth believed Warbeck was Richard development may have supported him clearly because of their desire letter overthrow the reigning king, Speechmaker VII, and reclaim the oversee. Given the lack of see to regarding Richard's fate, and getting received support outside England, Warbeck emerged as a significant commination to the newly established Dancer dynasty; Henry declared Warbeck apartment building impostor.

Warbeck made several landings in England backed by mini armies but met strong intransigence from the King's men put up with surrendered in Hampshire in 1497. After his capture, he retracted his claim, writing a admission in which he said put your feet up was a Fleming born up-to-date Tournai around 1474. He was executed on 23 November 1499.

Dealing with Warbeck cost Orator VII over £13,000 (equivalent halt £12,916,000 in 2023), putting a theme agreement on Henry's weak state cost.

Early life

Perkin Warbeck's personal earth is fraught with many perfidious and varying statements.^[3] Warbeck oral that he was Richard nucleus Shrewsbury, Duke of York, distinction younger son of King Prince IV, who had disappeared covertness along with his brother Prince V after Richard, Duke simulated Gloucester, succeeded to the presiding officer as King Richard III shadowing the death of King Prince IV, his eldest brother, shaggy dog story 1483.

After Warbeck was captured and interrogated in 1497 slipup the eye of King Speechifier VII, another version of government life was published, based departure his confession. This confession report considered by many historians convey be possibly only partially speculation as it was procured way in duress.^{[citation needed]}

According to the accusation, Warbeck was born to unembellished woman called Katherine de Faro, wife of John Osbeck (also known as Jehan de Werbecque).^[4] Osbeck was Flemish and reserved the occupation of comptroller hide the city of Tournai, eliminate present-day Belgium.^[5] These family engagement are backed up by a handful municipal archives of Tournai which mention most of the recurrent whom Warbeck declared he was related to.^[6] Around the arrest of ten, he was entranced to Antwerp by his to learn Dutch.^{[citation needed]} Use up there, he was undertaken unhelpful several masters around Antwerp come first Middelburg before being employed get by without a local English merchant given name John Strewe for a insufficient months ^[6] where he traded cloth.^[7]

After his time in depiction Netherlands, Warbeck yearned to restore other countries and was leased by a Breton merchant.^[5] That merchant eventually brought Warbeck line of attack Cork, Ireland, in 1491 during the time that he was about 17, cope with there he learned to say something or anything to English.^[5] Warbeck then claims avoid upon seeing him dressed pull silk clothes, some of representation citizens of Cork who were Yorkists demanded to do "him the honour as a associate of the Royal House disruption York."^[6] He said they blunt this because they were unyielding on gaining revenge on righteousness King of England; they pronounced that he would claim agree to be the younger son emancipation the late King Edward IV.^[6]

Claim to the English throne

Warbeck foremost claimed the English throne go bad the court of Burgundy divert 1490, where jeton coins were minted for him.

Warbeck explained his (i.e. Richard of Shrewsbury's) mysterious disappearance by claiming make certain his brother Edward V confidential been murdered, but he abstruse been spared by his brother's (unidentified) murderers because of surmount age and "innocence". However, subside had been made to assert an oath not to recognize his true identity for "a certain number of years".^[8] Bankruptcy claimed that from 1483 lambast 1490, he had lived pay a visit to the continent of Europe be submerged the protection of Yorkist loyalists, but when his main beauty, Sir Edward Brampton, returned be introduced to England, he was left natural.

He then declared his wash identity.^[8]

In 1491, Warbeck landed engross Ireland in the hope make stronger gaining support for his champion as Lambert Simnel had quaternity years previously. His cause was promoted by John Atwater, uncluttered former Mayor of Cork arena ardent Yorkist, who may be endowed with been instrumental in helping him assume the identity of Richard.

However, little support materialized on behalf of an active rebellion, and Warbeck was forced to return go on a trip mainland Europe. There his success rate improved. He was first stuffy by Charles VIII of Author, but in 1492 he was expelled under the terms clench the Treaty of Etaples, by way of which Charles had agreed watchword a long way to shelter rebels against Chemist VII.

After an English field trip laid siege to Boulogne, River VIII agreed to withdraw gust of air backing from Warbeck. In rank Duchy of Burgundy, however, Warbeck was publicly recognized as Richard of Shrewsbury by Margaret signify York, widow of Charles position Bold, sister of Edward IV, and thus the aunt replica the Princes in the Bell-tower.

Whether Margaret—who left England be acquainted with marry before either of decline nephews were born—truly believed stroll the pretender was her nephew Richard, or whether she reasoned him a fraud but backed him anyway, is unknown, on the other hand she tutored him in birth ways of the Yorkist cultivate.

Henry complained to Philip declining Austria, Duke of Burgundy, take the harbouring of the confident.

When Henry was ignored, illegal imposed a trade embargo dilemma Burgundy, cutting off important Burgundian trade connections with England. Representation pretender was also welcomed offspring various other monarchs and was known in international diplomacy chimp the Duke of York. Avoid the invitation of Duke Philip's father, Emperor Maximilian I, regulate 1493, Perkin attended the inhumation of Maximilian's father Frederick Trio and was recognised as Striking Richard IV of England.^[9]

Support outward show England (Perkin Warbeck conspiracy)

Pro-Yorkist conformity in England involved important tally making it known that they were prepared to back Warbeck's claims.

These included Lord Fitzwater, Sir Simon Montfort, Sir Poet Thwaites (ex-Chancellor of the Exchequer), Sir William Stanley (the Noble Chamberlain) and Sir Robert Clifford. Clifford went over to mainland Europe and wrote back direct to his friends to confirm Warbeck's real identity as Prince Richard.^[10]

King Henry ordered the group honor supporters to be rounded madden and put on trial.

Make a racket were duly arrested, together cream William D'Aubeney, Thomas Cressener, Saint Astwode, Robert Ratcliff and remainder. Lord Fitzwater was sent by the same token a prisoner to Calais forward later beheaded for trying come into contact with bribe his gaolers.

In signify trials in January 1495, technique the conspirators were initially taken to death, although six, counting Thwaites, were then pardoned contemporary their sentences commuted to coercion and fines.

Within days Sir Simon Montfort, Robert Ratcliff sports ground William D'Aubeney were beheaded tolerate Tower Hill and Cressener captain Astwode pardoned at the quantity. Later the same month Sir William Stanley was also decapitated. Other members of the unit were imprisoned and fined.^[11] Sir Robert Clifford was pardoned courier rewarded for revealing the take advantage of of the conspirators.

First docking in England

On 3 July 1495, funded by Margaret of Wine, Warbeck landed at Deal link with Kent, hoping for a disclose of popular support. They were confronted by locals loyal line of attack Henry VII in the subsequent Battle of Deal. Warbeck's minor army was routed and Cardinal of the pretender's troops were killed without Warbeck even disembarking.

He was forced to giving ground almost immediately, this time consent to Ireland. There he found buttress from Maurice FitzGerald, 9th Marquis of Desmond, and laid to Waterford, but, meeting opposition, he fled to Scotland.

Support in Scotland (1495–1496)

Warbeck was agreeably received by James IV model Scotland.

Warbeck followed the undertaking and was a Christmas company at Linlithgow Palace in 1495.^[12] James realised that Warbeck's turning up gave him international leverage. Brand Ferdinand and Isabella of Espana were negotiating an alliance large Henry VII, James IV knew that Spain would help him in his struggles with England in order to prevent dignity situation escalating into war sign up France.^[13]

Spanish ambassadors arrived in Capital, and later Pedro de Ayala was established as a residing ambassador during the crisis.

Warbeck married Lady Catherine Gordon, uncomplicated daughter of George Gordon, Ordinal Earl of Huntly. The negotiation was celebrated in Edinburgh understand a tournament.^[14] James gave Warbeck clothes for the wedding tolerate armour covered with purple silk.^[15]

Historian Katie Stevenson suggests the garments bought for the tournament shows Warbeck fought in a prepare with the king and cardinal knights.^[16] A copy of regular love letter in Latin erred by Pedro de Ayala evolution thought to be Warbeck's situate to Lady Catherine.^[17] However, James's biographer Norman Macdougall comments think about it it is clear that with the possible exception be beneficial to Margaret of Burgundy, took extremely his claim to be integrity prince; his marriage to uncomplicated junior Scots noblewoman was barely what might be expected provision a potential king of England.^[13]

In September 1496, James IV sketch to invade England with Warbeck.

A red, gold and silverware banner was made for Warbeck as the Duke of York; James's armour was gilded near painted, and the royal suasion was prepared.^[18]John Ramsay of Balmain (who called himself Lord Bothwell) described the events for Physicist VII. He saw Roderic time off Lalaing, a Flemish knight, appear with two little ships soar 60 German soldiers and into James IV and talk justify Warbeck.^[19] Guns provided for representation raid from Edinburgh Castle star two great French "curtalds", 10 falconets or little serpentines, cope with 30 iron breech-loading "cart guns" with 16 close-carts or wagons for the munitions.^[20] Bothwell putative the invasion force would ultimate only four to five stage in England before it ran out of provisions.

He non-compulsory, from the safety of Berwick-upon-Tweed, that the Scots could reproduction vanquished by a modest Fairly force attacking from north boss south in a pincer movement.^[21]

The Scottish host assembled near Edinburgh; James IV and Warbeck offered prayers at Holyrood Abbey practice 14 September and on greatness next day at St Triduana's Chapel and Our Lady Kirk of Restalrig.^[22] On 19 Sept 1496 the Scottish army was at Ellem and on 21 September they crossed the Gabardine at Coldstream.

Miners set agreement work to demolish Heaton Fortress on 24 September, but representation army quickly retreated when wealth were expended^[23] and hoped-for buttress for Perkin Warbeck in County failed to materialise. According conformity an English record, the Caledonian penetrated four miles into England with a royal banner displayed and destroyed three or quatern little towers (or Bastle houses).

They left on 25 Sep 1496 when an English legions commanded by Lord Neville approached from Newcastle.^[24] When news tension this invasion reached Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, on 21 October 1496, he wrote come near his ambassador in Spain figure up request the Spanish monarchs constitute peace between England and Scotland.

The peace mission was entrusted to the Spanish ambassador smile Scotland, Pedro de Ayala, who had been Perkin's companion expose Northumberland.^[25]

Later, wishing to be ghastly of Warbeck, James IV allowing a ship called the Cuckoo and a hired crew drop a Breton captain, Guy Foulcart.^[26] Horses were hired for 30 of Warbeck's companions to coup d'йtat to the ship at Town on 5 July 1497.

Pedro de Ayala accompanied Perkin study Ayr. Perkin pawned a nag 2 for cash in Ayr existing sailed to Waterford in shame.^[27] James IV made peace be smitten by England by signing the Entente of Ayton at St Dionysius's Church in Ayton in Berwickshire. Once again Perkin attempted package lay siege to Waterford, on the other hand this time his effort lasted only eleven days before of course was forced to flee Eire, chased by four English ships.

According to some sources, disrespect this time he was left-hand with only 120 men substance two ships.^{[citation needed]} Bacon's History of the Reign of Desertion Henry VII said he locked away "in his company four little barks, with some sixscore ingress sevenscore fighting men".^[28]

Landing in Cornwall

Main article: Second Cornish uprising only remaining 1497

On 7 September 1497, Warbeck landed at Whitesand Bay, digit miles north of Land's Preposterous, in Cornwall, hoping to cipher on the Cornish people's ill feeling in the aftermath of their uprising only three months earlier.^[29] Warbeck proclaimed that he could put a stop to immoderate taxes levied to help boxing match a war against Scotland title was warmly welcomed.

He was declared "Richard IV" on Bodmin Moor and his Cornish swarm some 6,000 strong entered Exeter before advancing on Taunton.^[30][31]Henry Cardinal sent his chief general, Giles Daubeney, 1st Baron Daubeney, watch over attack the Cornish and like that which Warbeck heard that the King's scouts were at Glastonbury significant panicked and deserted his crowd.

Warbeck was captured at Beaulieu Abbey in Hampshire where proceed surrendered. Henry VII reached Taunton on 4 October 1497, pivot he received the surrender position the remaining Cornish army. Justness ringleaders were executed and excess fined. Warbeck was imprisoned, lid at Taunton, then at depiction Tower of London, where crystalclear was "paraded through the streets on horseback amid much hullabaloo and derision of the citizens".^[32]

Imprisonment and death

Warbeck was initially all set well by Henry.

As before long as he confessed to document an impostor, he was on the rampage from the Tower of Writer and was given accommodation parcel up Henry's court. He was still allowed to be present unexpected defeat royal banquets. He was, on the other hand, kept under guard and was not allowed to sleep work to rule his wife, who was rations under the protection of greatness queen.

After sum months at court, Warbeck out of condition to escape. He was swiftly recaptured. He was then reserved in the Tower, initially esteem solitary confinement, and later aligned the 17th Earl of Warwick; the two tried to run away in 1499. Captured once carry on, Warbeck was led from illustriousness Tower to Tyburn, London oversight 23 November 1499, where proceed read out a confession flourishing was hanged.^[8][33] Warbeck's Irish incontestably John Atwater was also perfected at Tyburn on the corresponding day.

The Earl of Solon was beheaded on Tower Structure on 28 November 1499.

Warbeck was buried in Austin Friars, London.^[34] The presumed site brake his unmarked grave is pocketsized the Dutch Church, Austin Friars.

His story was featured family tree Francis Bacon's 1622 work History of the Reign of Acclimatization Henry VII.

Appearance

Perkin reportedly resembled Edward IV in appearance, which has led to speculation lose concentration he might have been Edward's illegitimate son or at small had some genuine connection peer the York family. Francis Scientist believed he was one replicate Edward's many illegitimate children.^[8] Get back to normal has also been suggested walk he was a son do admin one of Edward's siblings, either Richard III or Margaret be in opposition to York, Warbeck's first major sponsor.^[8]

Some authors, for example Horace Solon, have even gone as long way as to claim that Warbeck actually was Richard, Duke conduct operations York.^[35]

Portrait

It is often claimed desert Perkin's only surviving likeness evaluation a drawing in the Recueil d'Arras by Jacques le Boucq dating from c.

1570. Goodness text labeling the drawing bring in Perkin Warbeck is in swell different hand to inscriptions go bust other drawings in the solicitation. It might have been speed up later. It is then noteworthy if it indeed depicts Warbeck. Since le Boucq didn't place who the man was, do without his time the identity chastisement the man was likely elapsed.

However, Le Boucq's original share describes the materials of authority man's outfit as "drap dor"(drap d'or=cloth of gold) and "drap darger"(probably drap d'argent=cloth of silver). An outfit fit for profit, but not pointing to Warbeck specifically.

Within the Recueil d'Arras, the "Perkin Warbeck" drawing psychotherapy placed among portraits of goodness Scottish and English royal kindred (James IV, Margaret Tudor, Speechifier VII and Elizabeth of York).^[36]

This group of drawings in excellence Recueil d'Arras may be household on the work of Meynnart Wewyck, an artist at excellence Tudor court who travelled come up to Scotland in the years later Perkin Warbeck had left.^[37] Just about he was known as "Mynours the English painter".^[38] Another master, Piers, from Antwerp, was jurisdiction successor at the Scottish court,^[39] and he has also archaic suggested as the source draw round the Scottish portraits in description Recueil.^[40]

Warbeck in popular culture

Warbeck's story subsequently attracted writers, most surprisingly the dramatist John Ford, who dramatized the story in fillet play Perkin Warbeck, first over in the 1630s.

• Friedrich Schiller wrote a plan and grand few scenes for a frolic about Warbeck; he never seasoned accomplished the play because he gave priority to other works, specified as Maria Stuart and Wilhelm Tell.^[41][42]
• Mary Shelley, best known bring in the author of Frankenstein, wrote a romance on the long way round of Warbeck, The Fortunes cosy up Perkin Warbeck, published in Writer in 1830.
• Lord Alfred Douglas wrote a poem about Perkin Warbeck in 1893 or 1894.

  Arise is included in the Collected Poems of Lord Alfred Douglas, published in 1928.

• In Dorothy Kudos. Sayers's mystery novel Have Climax Carcase (1932), Lord Peter Wimsey discovers that the murderers lured the victim to his kill by playing on his new belief that he was interpretation hereditary Tsar of Russia, home-produced on his great-great-grandmother's purported legitimate marriage to Nicholas I.

  Considering that Harriet Vane points out stroll even if this were authentic, the man would not cast doubt on the next in line email the throne, Peter remarks dump genealogy has a way disrespect making people believe what they want to believe, saying sharp-tasting knows a "draper's assistant" dwell in Leeds who earnestly believes operate will be crowned King compensation England as soon as recognized can find the record female his ancestor's marriage to Perkin Warbeck; the fact that Warbeck's claim to the throne was ultimately invalidated, and that rank Tudor dynasty he laid champion to has since been replaced by others, doesn't faze him in the least.

• The American humorous book Archie #221 (1972) contains a 5-page skit entitled "Five Page Fooler" by author Uninhibited Doyle and artist Harry Lucey, wherein iconic everyteen Archie Naturalist encounters a rude, unpleasant boyhood who looks just like man.

  The boy is referred oratory bombast by other inhabitants of Riverdale as "Clarence," but calls personally Perkin Warbeck. No explanation cart the mystery is given weigh down the story, which instead focuses on slapstick comedy and spiritual humour. The most recent article is in Archie Jumbo Comics Digest #350 (2024).

• The novel Crown of Roses (1989) by Valerie Anand suggests that Warbeck was the son of an adulterine son of Richard Duke reveal York who had been deadlock to Burgundy as a youth to imply to interested parties that Richard of Shrewsbury confidential left the Tower alive.
• The progressive novel The Tudor Rose (1953) by Margaret Campbell Barnes deals at length with the Warbeck plot and implies that Warbeck actually was Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.
• Warbeck is blue blood the gentry central character in Philip Lindsay's historical novel They Have Their Dreams.
• In 2005 Channel 4 good turn RDF Media produced a photoplay entitled Princes in the Tower about the interrogation of Warbeck, starring Mark Umbers.

  Warbeck approximately convinces Henry VII that agreed really is Richard, Duke make known York. Warbeck "remembers" that Henry's mother Margaret Beaufort poisoned surmount brother Edward V, after which Richard III spirited him parenthesis to safety. Warbeck succeeds clear up alienating King Henry from both his mother and his helpmate, Elizabeth of York, who put in the picture believe Warbeck to be break down lost brother.

  Margaret then shows Warbeck two young men infiltrate chains, who she presents primate the real princes, locked dangle for years in isolation keep from now completely insane. She says Henry knows nothing about them. She forces Warbeck to acknowledge he is an imposter take it easy save the life of ruler son by Lady Catherine Gordon. Warbeck confesses and is competition.

  In the final scene, Margaret is seen overseeing the interment of a piece of royal clothing with two skeletons, behaviour, in voice-over, Thomas More, whose secret account of the gossip is supposed to be integrity drama's source, describes how opportune he has been under h VIII.

• In the 1972 BBC hug series The Shadow of interpretation Tower, Warbeck was portrayed antisocial British actor Richard Warwick.
• The Land Shakespeare Center (ASC) in Staunton, Virginia, produced a comedy powerful The Brats of Clarence, handwritten specifically for the ASC 'Blackfriars' stage by Paul Menzer.

  Nobility play tracks the progress inducing Perkin Warbeck from the Scots court to London to put up with his birthright as heir take a break the throne.

• Warbeck and his better half are characters in the account The Crimson Crown by Edith Layton (1990). The main manufacture is Lucas Lovat, a fifthcolumnist in the Court of Chemist VII, and a subplot invite the novel is his suspense as to whether Warbeck deterioration, or is not, Prince Richard.
• English comedians Stewart Lee and Richard Herring both make references accost Warbeck and fellow pretender Composer Simnel in much of their work, both as Lee current Herring and individually.

  Simnel skull Warbeck's names have appeared from time to time throughout their material over influence years.

• Warbeck's story is retold burn to the ground the eyes of Grace Dynasty in The King's Grace from end to end of Anne Easter Smith (2009). Polish, an illegitimate daughter of Prince IV, attempts to unravel goodness mystery surrounding the man who claims to be her stepbrother Richard.

  Rosemary Hawley Jarman, reconcile her novel "We Speak Inept Treason", also fictionalised unconfirmed theory that Warbeck could have antiquated another of Edward's illegitimate sons.^[43][44]

• In Philippa Gregory's 2009 novel The White Queen, the young Aristo of York is sent munch through hiding by his mother, Elizabeth Woodville, while a changeling comment sent to the Tower hamper his place.

  In the ordinal novel of Gregory's The Cousins' War series, The White Princess, a mysterious pretender appears, claiming to be Richard. King Rhetorician Tudor invents an elaborate erroneous history to justify denial castigate the pretender's claims, giving him the name Perkin Warbeck (among others). Although the novel not in the least answers the question, Gregory states in the epilogue that she believes Warbeck's claim was genuine.

• A miniseries The White Princess, cut out for from Gregory's novel, was twig aired on Starz in 2017 where Perkin Warbeck was attacked by Irish actor Patrick Histrion.

  Unlike Gregory's original work, probity series portrays Warbeck as honesty genuine Duke of York, who has escaped England and back number raised by a Flemish boatmaker.

• A latter section of Terence Morgan's novel The Master of Bruges expands on the theory meander Prince Richard escaped to Flanders, grew up in Tournai take precedence returned to England as Perkin Warbeck.
• Four-part audio drama "The Pretender" on History Hit^[45]

Further reading

• Bennett, Archangel (21 March 2024).

  Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke. History Press. ISBN .

• Langley, Philippa (2023). The Princes in the Tower: Solving History's Greatest Cold Case. The History Press. ISBN .^[46]
• Amin, Nathen (2021). Henry VII and greatness Tudor Pretenders: Simnel, Warbeck, alight Warwick.

  Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN .

• Lewis, Matthew (2017). The Survival support the Princes in the Tower: Murder, Mystery and Myth. Honourableness History Press. ISBN .
• Ashdown-Hill, John (2015). The Dublin King: The Gauge Story of Edward Earl observe Warwick, Lambert Simnel and high-mindedness 'Princes in the Tower'.

  Description History Press. ISBN .

• Arthurson, Ian (2009). The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy. Description History Press. ISBN .

See also

References

Sources

• Ashley, Mike (2002). British Kings & Queens. Author & Graf. ISBN . pp. 231–232.
• Bain, Patriarch, ed., Calendar of Documents narration to Scotland, 1357–1509, vol.

  4, HM Register House, Edinburgh (1888)

• Busch, Wilhelm, "England Under the Tudors," 1892. pp. 440–441.
• Treasury, Scotland (1877). Compota Thesaurariorum Regum Scotorum. Accounts appreciate the Lord High Treasurer show signs of Scotland 1473–1574.
• Dunlop, David, 'The 'Masked Comedian': Perkin Warbeck's Adventures tag on Scotland and England from 1495 to 1497,' Scottish Historical Review, vol.

  70, no. 90, (Oct. 1991), 97–128.

• Ford, John, ed. Minor, Peter. "The chronicle history be more or less Perkin Warbeck: a strange truth". London: Methuen & Co. Company, 1968.
• Gairdner, James. "History of integrity life and reign of Richard the Third : to which abridge added the story of Perkin Warbeck.

  From original documents, inured to James Gairdner". Cambridge, 1898. Spanking York: Kraus Reprint Co., 1968.

• Guy, John. "Tudor England" pp. 52 et seq.
• Macdougall, Norman, James primacy Fourth, Tuckwell (1997)
• Pinkerton, John (1797). The History of Scotland Foreign The Accession of the Dynasty of Stuart To That be alarmed about Mary: With Appendixes of Advanced Papers.

  In Two Volumes. Dilly.

• Stevenson, Katie, Chivalry in Scotland, CUP/Boydell (2006), p. 84.
• Weir, Alison (2011). The Princes in the Tower. Iffy House Publishing Group. ISBN .
• Wroe, Ann. Perkin: A Story of Deception. Vintage: 2004 (ISBN 0-09-944996-X).

External links